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Receptor Signaling: GPCRs and Beyond Butyrate activates several G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that mediate its systemic effects: [7] GPR41 (FFAR3) Expressed in enteroendocrine cells, adipose tissue, and immune cells, GPR41 activation by butyrate: Stimulates GLP-1 and PYY secretion , regulating appetite and glucose metabolism Modulates adipocyte function and energy storage Influences sympathetic nervous system activity GPR43 (FFAR2) With broader expression including intestinal epithelium, immune cells, and adipocytes, GPR43 mediates: Promotes healthy inflammation responses through regulatory T cell (Treg) expansion Neutrophil chemotaxis and immune cell recruitment Insulin sensitivity improvements Intestinal barrier enhancement GPR109A (HCA2) This receptor, also known as the niacin receptor , responds to butyrate by: Supporting colonic immune balance and cellular resilience Inducing IL-18 production, which maintains epithelial integrity Promoting anti-inflammatory macrophage differentiation Immune Modulation: The Treg Connection One of butyrate's most important systemic effects involves regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation

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Predrag Sikirics group (School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 1991 ) Most common experimental dose in animal studies: 10 g/kg intraperitoneally or per os, daily Standard targeted pathways: VEGFR2 angiogenesis, NO synthase , 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, dopamine D2 receptor Clinical program in Croatia halted at Phase 2 (Crohns disease) WADA Prohibited List: added in 2022 to category S0 (Non-Approved Substances) Reference sources (PubMed) Sikiric P

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